CHINESE JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY AND PARASITIC DISEASES >

2025 , Vol. 43 >Issue 2: 241 - 251

DOI: https://doi.org/10.12140/j.issn.1000-7423.2025.02.015

REVIEWS

Overview of the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in Africa

  • ZHANG Ling ,
  • LIU Xingzhuo ,
  • LV Fangli
Expand
  • 1 The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, China
    2 Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, Guangdong, China

Received date: 2024-07-21

  Revised date: 2024-11-06

  Online published: 2025-02-19

Supported by

National natural Science Foundation of China(82272366);National natural Science Foundation of China(81971955);Shenzhen Natural Science Foundation General Project(JCYJ20220530145002006);Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong province(2021A1515012115);Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong province(2019A1515011667);2021 Graduate Education Innovation Plan Projects of Guangdong province(2021SFKC003)

Fold

Abstract

There have been limited research reports on Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in Africa until now. Publications pertaining to the prevalence of T. gondii infection among general populations, prevalence of T. gondii infection among pregnant women, prevalence of T. gondii infection and congenital toxoplasmosis among children, prevalence of T. gondii infection among HIV/AIDS patients and tumor patients, genotypes and geographical distributions of T. gondii strains, and risk factors and route of T. gondii infection in Africa from 2015 to 2024, were retrieved in PubMed using the keywords “Toxoplasma gondii”, “toxoplasmosis”, and “Africa”, so as to provide insights into toxoplasmosis research.

Key words： Toxoplasma gondii; Toxoplasmosis; Africa

Cite this article

ZHANG Ling , LIU Xingzhuo , LV Fangli . Overview of the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in Africa[J]. CHINESE JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY AND PARASITIC DISEASES, 2025 , 43(2) : 241 -251 . DOI: 10.12140/j.issn.1000-7423.2025.02.015

References

[1] Molan A, Nosaka K, Hunter M, et al. Global status of Toxoplasma gondii infection: Systematic review and prevalence snapshots[J]. Trop Biomed, 2019, 36(4): 898-925.
[2] Greigert V, Di Foggia E, Filisetti D, et al. When biology supports clinical diagnosis: Review of techniques to diagnose ocular toxoplasmosis[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 2019, 103(7): 1008-1012.
[3] Shehata AI, Hassanein F, Abdul-Ghani R. Opportunistic parasitoses among Egyptian hemodialysis patients in relation to CD4+ T-cell counts: A comparative study[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2019, 19(1): 480.
[4] Abd El Latif E, Mousa R, Tawfeeq Mahdi M, et al. Etiology of pediatric uveitis in a tertiary pediatric eye hospital in Egypt[J]. Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 2023, 31(10): 1978-1983.
[5] Amin RM, Goweida M, Bedda A, et al. Clinical patterns and causes of intraocular inflammation in a uveitis patient cohort from Egypt[J]. Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 2019, 27(6): 859-867.
[6] Salem DA, Hendawy SR, Nassar MK. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among hemodialysis patients: A possible link to main T-lymphocyte subsets levels and dialysis adequacy[J]. Acta Trop, 2023, 237: 106703.
[7] Shehata AI, Hassanein FI, Abdul-Ghani R. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among patients with non-schizophrenic neurodevelopmental disorders in Alexandria, Egypt[J]. Acta Trop, 2016, 154: 155-159.
[8] Kezai AM, Lecoeur C, Hot D, et al. Association between schizophrenia and Toxoplasma gondii infection in Algeria[J]. Psychiatry Res, 2020, 291: 113293.
[9] Lachkhem A, Lahmar I, Galal L, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among healthy blood donors in two locations in Tunisia and associated risk factors[J]. Parasite, 2020, 27:51.
[10] El Mansouri B, Amarir F, Peyron F, et al. High performance of a novel point-of-care blood test for Toxoplasma infection in women from diverse regions of Morocco[J]. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2021, 10(1): 1675-1682.
[11] Mustafa M, Fathy F, Mirghani A, et al. Prevalence and risk factors profile of seropositive Toxoplasmosis gondii infection among apparently immunocompetent Sudanese women[J]. BMC Res Notes, 2019, 12(1): 279.
[12] Tilahun B, Hailu Y, Tilahun G, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans in East Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia[J]. Epidemiol Infect, 2016, 144(1): 64-71.
[13] Achaw B, Tesfa H, Zeleke AJ, et al. Sero-prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors among psychiatric outpatients attending University of Gondar Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2019, 19(1): 581.
[14] Cook EAJ, Gitahi N, de Glanville WA, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in slaughterhouse workers in western Kenya[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2021, 21(1): 944.
[15] Nisbet AI, Omuse G, Revathi G, et al. Seroprevalence data at a private teaching hospital in Kenya: An examination of Toxoplasma gondii, cytomegalovirus, rubella, hepatitis A, and Entamoeba histolytica[J]. PLoS One, 2018, 13(10): e0204867.
[16] Martínez MJ, Massora S, Mandomando I, et al. Infectious cause of death determination using minimally invasive autopsies in developing countries[J]. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2016, 84(1): 80-86.
[17] Abraham EG, Moses AE, Motilewa USOO, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis among livestock farmers and raw meat handlers in uyo, Nigeria[J]. Ethiop J Health Sci, 2021, 31(2): 257-266.
[18] Olarinde O, Sowemimo OA, Chuang TW, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection: Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for women of childbearing age in Osun State, Nigeria[J]. Pathog Glob Health, 2022, 116(1): 59-65.
[19] Steptoe PJ, Momorie F, Fornah AD, et al. Evolving longitudinal retinal observations in a cohort of survivors of Ebola virus disease[J]. JAMA Ophthalmol, 2020, 138(4): 395-403.
[20] Siransy L, Dasse SR, Dou Gonat SP, et al. Immunity status of blood donors regarding Toxoplasma gondii infection in a low-income district of Abidjan, c?te d’Ivoire, west Africa[J]. J Immunol Res, 2016, 2016: 6830895.
[21] Opintan JA, Awadzi BK, Biney IJK, et al. High rates of cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV patients presenting with meningitis in Accra, Ghana[J]. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 2017, 111(10): 464-471.
[22] Abu EK, Boampong JN, Amoabeng JK, et al. Epidemiology of ocular toxoplasmosis in three community surveys in the central region of Ghana, West Africa[J]. Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 2016, 23(1): 14-19.
[23] Wam EC, Sama LF, Ali IM, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii IgG and IgM antibodies and associated risk factors in women of child-bearing age in Njinikom, NW Cameroon[J]. BMC Res Notes, 2016, 9(1): 406.
[24] Bouscaren N, Pilleron S, Mbelesso P, et al. Prevalence of toxoplasmosis and its association with dementia in older adults in central Africa: A result from the EPIDEMCA programme[J]. Trop Med Int Health, 2018, 23(12): 1304-1313.
[25] Nsiangani Lusambo N, Kaimbo Wa Kaimbo D, Mumba Ngoyi D, et al. Risk factors for ocular toxoplasmosis among uveitis patients in Kinshasa, DR Congo[J]. BMJ Open Ophthalmol, 2023, 8(1): e001198.
[26] Bokaba RP, Dermauw V, Morar-Leather D, et al. An investigation into Toxoplasma gondii at the human-livestock-wildlife interface, South Africa[J]. Onderstepoort J Vet Res, 2024, 91(1): e1-e8.
[27] Rautenbach W, Steffen J, Smit D, et al. Patterns of uveitis at two university-based referral centres in cape town, South Africa[J]. Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 2019, 27(6): 868-874.
[28] Dasa TT, Geta TG, Yalew AZ, et al. Toxoplasmosis infection among pregnant women in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. PLoS One, 2021, 16(7): e0254209.
[29] Tarekegn ZS, Dejene H, Addisu A, et al. Potential risk factors associated with seropositivity for Toxoplasma gondii among pregnant women and HIV infected individuals in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2020, 14(12): e0008944.
[30] Onduru OG, Rumisha SF, Munyeme M, et al. Evaluation of the level of awareness of congenital toxoplasmosis and associated practices among pregnant women and health workers in Tanzania’s Temeke district in Dar es Salaam[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2019, 19(4): 3027-3037.
[31] Fenta DA. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at Hawassa University comprehensive specialized and Yirgalem General Hospitals, in Southern Ethiopia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2019, 19(1): 1056.
[32] Odeniran PO, Omolabi KF, Ademola IO. Risk factors associated with seropositivity for Toxoplasma gondii in population-based studies among immunocompromised patients (pregnant women, HIV patients and children) in West African countries, Cameroon and Gabon: A meta-analysis[J]. Acta Trop, 2020, 209: 105544.
[33] Khames M, Sihem S, Hizia H, et al. High toxoplasmosis seroprevalence among young pregnant women in Medea, Algeria[J]. Ann Parasitol, 2020, 66(4): 509-515.
[34] Berredjem H, Aouras H, Benlaifa M, et al. Contribution of IgG avidity and PCR for the early diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women from the North-Eastern region of Algeria[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2017, 17(3): 647-656.
[35] Gashout A, Amro A, Erhuma M, et al. Molecular diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Libya[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2016, 16: 157.
[36] Hoummadi L, Berrouch S, Amraouza Y, et al. Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women of the Marrakech-Safi region, Morocco[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2020, 20(1): 59-63.
[37] Laboudi M, Sadak A. Serodiagnosis of Toxoplasmosis: The effect of measurement of IgG avidity in pregnant women in Rabat in Morocco[J]. Acta Trop, 2017, 172: 139-142.
[38] Lahmar I, Lachkhem A, Babba O, et al. First isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains from human congenital toxoplasmosis cases in Monastir, Tunisia[J]. Sci Rep, 2020, 10(1): 1963.
[39] Kamal AM, Ahmed AK, Abdellatif MZ, et al. Seropositivity of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women by ELISA at Minia university hospital, Egypt[J]. Korean J Parasitol, 2015, 53(5): 605-610.
[40] Barakat AMA, Ahmed SO, Zaki MS, et al. New approach to differentiate primary from latent Toxoplasma gondii abortion through immunoglobulin and DNA interpretation[J]. Microb Pathog, 2018, 125: 66-71.
[41] Alshareef SA, Nasr AM, Adam I. Toxoplasma gondii infection and pre-eclampsia among Sudanese women[J]. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 2018, 112(8): 393-396.
[42] Hunsperger E, Osoro E, Munyua P, et al. Seroconversion and seroprevalence of TORCH infections in a pregnant women cohort study, Mombasa, Kenya, 2017-2019[J]. Epidemiol Infect, 2024, 152: e68.
[43] Mirambo MM, Mshana SE, Gro? U. Rubella virus, Toxoplasma gondii and Treponema pallidum congenital infections among full term delivered women in an urban area of Tanzania: A call for improved antenatal care[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2019, 19(2): 1858-1865.
[44] Teweldemedhin M, Gebremichael A, Geberkirstos G, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii among pregnant women in Adwa district, northern Ethiopia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2019, 19(1): 327.
[45] Jula J, Girones G, Edao B, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women attending antenatal care in southern Ethiopia[J]. Rev Esp Quimioter, 2018, 31(4): 363-366.
[46] Negero J, Yohannes M, Woldemichael K, et al. Seroprevalence and potential risk factors of T. gondii infection in pregnant women attending antenatal care at Bonga Hospital, Southwestern Ethiopia[J]. Int J Infect Dis, 2017, 57: 44-49.
[47] Abamecha F, Awel H. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women following antenatal care at Mizan Aman General Hospital, Bench Maji Zone (BMZ), Ethiopia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2016, 16(1): 460.
[48] Kassie E, Kebede N, Kassa T, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection among pregnant women at Debre Markos Referral Hospital, northwest Ethiopia[J]. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 2024, 118(1): 61-68.
[49] Agmas B, Tesfaye R, Koye DN. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors among pregnant women in Debre Tabor, Northwest Ethiopia[J]. BMC Res Notes, 2015, 8: 107.
[50] Kamus L, Belec S, Lambrecht L, et al. Maternal and congenital toxoplasmosis in Mayotte: Prevalence, incidence and management[J]. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2023, 17(3): e0011198.
[51] Singh B, Debrah LB, Acheampong G, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection among pregnant women in Kumasi: A cross-sectional study at a district-level hospital, Ghana[J]. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol, 2021, 2021: 6670219.
[52] V?lker F, Cooper P, Bader O, et al. Prevalence of pregnancy-relevant infections in a rural setting of Ghana[J]. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 2017, 17(1): 172.
[53] Bamba S, Cissé M, Sangaré I, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women from Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2017, 17(1): 482.
[54] Vueba AN, Faria CP, Almendra R, et al. Serological prevalence of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women in Luanda (Angola): Geospatial distribution and its association with socio-demographic and clinical-obstetric determinants[J]. PLoS One, 2020, 15(11): e0241908.
[55] Lobo ML, Patrocinio G, Sevivas T, et al. Portugal and Angola: Similarities and differences in Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and risk factors in pregnant women[J]. Epidemiol Infect, 2017, 145(1): 30-40.
[56] Zakari MM, Isah AY, Offiong R, et al. Serological survey and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection among HIV-infected pregnant women attending Abuja Tertiary Hospital, Nigeria[J]. Malawi Med J, 2020, 32(3): 160-167.
[57] Yéngué JF, Essomba CMN, Ndzengue GEA, et al. Performance of immunochromatographic and immunoenzymatic techniques in the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women in Cameroon: Need for harmonization[J]. Pan Afr Med J, 2022, 43: 195.
[58] Pegha Moukandja I, Ngoungou EB, Lemamy GJ, et al. Non-malarial infectious diseases of antenatal care in pregnant women in Franceville, Gabon[J]. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 2017, 17(1): 185.
[59] Frimpong C, Makasa M, Sitali L, et al. Seroprevalence and determinants of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at the university teaching hospital, Lusaka, Zambia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2017, 17(1): 10.
[60] Manuel L, Santos-Gomes G, Noormahomed EV. Human toxoplasmosis in Mozambique: Gaps in knowledge and research opportunities[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2020, 13(1): 571.
[61] Hamouda MM, El-Saied AS, Zaher A, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: Seroprevalence and association with childhood brain tumors in Egypt[J]. Acta Trop, 2024, 251: 107123.
[62] Elmallawany MA, Abdel-Aal AA, Abu Eleinen KG, et al. Metagenomic analysis of the ocular toxoplasmosis in children uveitis from Fayoum governorate, Egypt[J]. Infect Genet Evol, 2024, 118: 105551.
[63] Hassan ZR, Zekry KM, Heikal EA, et al. Toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus infection and their role in Egyptian autistic children[J]. Parasitol Res, 2023, 122(5): 1177-1187.
[64] Salem DA, Salem NA, Hendawy SR. Association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and metabolic syndrome in obese adolescents: A possible immune-metabolic link[J]. Parasitol Int, 2021, 83: 102343.
[65] Eraky MA, Abdel-Hady S, Abdallah KF. Seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. in children with cryptogenic epilepsy, benha, Egypt[J]. Korean J Parasitol, 2016, 54(3): 335-338.
[66] Gyawali R, Moodley VR. Causes of childhood vision impairment in the school for the blind in Eritrea[J]. Optom Vis Sci, 2017, 94(12): 1138-1144.
[67] Gyang VP, Akinwale OP, Lee YL, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection: Seroprevalence and associated risk factors among primary schoolchildren in Lagos City, Southern Nigeria[J]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop, 2015, 48(1): 56-63.
[68] Achonduh-Atijegbe OA, Mfuh KO, Mbange AH, et al. Prevalence of malaria, typhoid, toxoplasmosis and rubella among febrile children in Cameroon[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2016, 16(1): 658.
[69] Wang ZD, Wang SC, Liu HH, et al. Prevalence and burden of Toxoplasma gondii infection in HIV-infected people: A systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Lancet HIV, 2017, 4(4): e177-e188.
[70] Abdel Malek R, Wassef R, Rizk E, et al. Toxoplasmosis an overlooked disease: Seroprevalence in cancer patients[J]. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 2018, 19(7): 1987-1991.
[71] El-Henawy AA, Hafez EAR, Nabih N, et al. Anti-Toxoplasma antibodies in Egyptian rheumatoid arthritis patients[J]. Rheumatol Int, 2017, 37(5): 785-790.
[72] Aboukamar WA, Habib S, Tharwat S, et al. Association between toxoplasmosis and autoimmune rheumatic diseases in Egyptian patients[J]. Reumatol Clin, 2023, 19(9): 488-494.
[73] Shalaka NS, Garred NA, Zeglam HT, et al. Clinical profile and factors associated with mortality in hospitalized patients with HIV/AIDS: A retrospective analysis from Tripoli medical centre, Libya, 2013[J]. Al Majallah Al Sihhiyah Li Sharq Al Mutawassit, 2015, 21(9): 635-646.
[74] Amare A. Seizure in HIV-infected patients: Clinical presentation, cause and treatment outcome in Ethiopia-a retrospective study[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2021, 21(1): 790.
[75] Arefaine ZG, Abebe S, Bekele E, et al. Incidence and predictors of HIV related opportunistic infections after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy at ayder referral hospital, mekelle, Ethiopia: A retrospective single centered cohort study[J]. PLoS One, 2020, 15(4): e0229757.
[76] Zeleke AJ, Melsew YA. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors among HIV-infected women within reproductive age group at mizan aman general hospital, southwest Ethiopia: A cross sectional study[J]. BMC Res Notes, 2017, 10(1): 70.
[77] Jian-Yu JY, Wang ZF, Ssekasanvu J, et al. Visual impairment and eye diseases in HIV-infected people in the antiretroviral therapy (ART) era in rakai, Uganda[J]. Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 2021, 28(1): 63-69.
[78] Ramachandran PS, Ramesh A, Creswell FV, et al. Integrating central nervous system metagenomics and host response for diagnosis of tuberculosis meningitis and its mimics[J]. Nat Commun, 2022, 13(1): 1675.
[79] Rajasingham R, Rhein J, Klammer K, et al. Epidemiology of meningitis in an HIV-infected Ugandan cohort[J]. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 2015, 92(2): 274-279.
[80] Kibwana UO, Manyahi J, Nkinda LB, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasmosis among HIV infected women of child-bearing age attending care and treatment clinics in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2022, 22(4): 470-476.
[81] Raberahona M, Razafinambinintsoa T, Andriananja V, et al. Hospitalization of HIV positive patients in a referral tertiary care hospital in Antananarivo Madagascar, 2010-2016: Trends, causes and outcome[J]. PLoS One, 2018, 13(8): e0203437.
[82] Pappoe F, Cheng WS, Wang L, et al. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in HIV-infected patients and food animals and direct genotyping of T. gondii isolates, Southern Ghana[J]. Parasitol Res, 2017, 116(6): 1675-1685.
[83] Saavedra A, Campinha-Bacote N, Hajjar M, et al. Causes of death and factors associated with early mortality of HIV-infected adults admitted to Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital[J]. Pan Afr Med J, 2017, 27: 48.
[84] Fang EE, Nyasa RB, Ndi EM, et al. Investigating the risk factors for seroprevalence and the correlation between CD4+ T-cell count and humoral antibody responses to Toxoplasma gondii infection amongst HIV patients in the Bamenda Health District, Cameroon[J]. PLoS One, 2021, 16(12): e0256947.
[85] Ondounda M, Ilozue C, Magne C. Cerebro-meningeal infections in HIV-infected patients: A study of 116 cases in Libreville, Gabon[J]. Afr Health Sci, 2016, 16(2): 603-610.
[86] Smit DP, Esterhuizen TM, Meyer D, et al. The etiology of intraocular inflammation in HIV positive and HIV negative adults at a tertiary hospital in cape town, South Africa[J]. Ocul Immunol Inflamm, 2019, 27(2): 203-210.
[87] Xiao J, Yolken RH. Strain hypothesis of Toxoplasma gondii infection on the outcome of human diseases[J]. Acta Physiol, 2015, 213(4): 828-845.
[88] Sibley LD, Khan A, Ajioka JW, et al. Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in animals and humans[J]. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2009, 364(1530): 2749-2761.
[89] Bamba S, Halos L, Tarnagda Z, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and direct genotyping using minisequencing in free-range pigs in Burkina Faso[J]. Int J Food Microbiol, 2016, 230: 10-15.
[90] Ayi I, Kwofie KD, Blay EA, et al. Clonal types of Toxoplasma gondii among immune compromised and immune competent individuals in Accra, Ghana[J]. Parasitol Int, 2016, 65(3): 238-244.
[91] Ali Awad HA, Sardjono TW, Fitri LE, et al. Molecular prevalence and genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in free-range chicken in Northeastern Libya[J]. Open Vet J, 2023, 13(2): 225-232.
[92] Nzelu IN, Kwaga JKP, Kabir J, et al. Detection and genetic characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii circulating in free-range chickens, pigs and seropositive pregnant women in Benue state, Nigeria[J]. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2021, 15(6): e0009458.
[93] El-Alfy ES, Abu-Elwafa S, Abbas I, et al. Molecular screening approach to identify protozoan and trichostrongylid parasites infecting one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius)[J]. Acta Trop, 2019, 197: 105060.
[94] Ghozzi K, Marangi M, Papini R, et al. First report of Tunisian coastal water contamination by protozoan parasites using mol lusk bivalves as biological indicators[J]. Mar Pollut Bull, 2017, 117(1/2): 197-202.
[95] Galal L, Sarr A, Cuny T, et al. The introduction of new hosts with human trade shapes the extant distribution of Toxoplasma gondii lineages[J]. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2019, 13(7): e0007435.
[96] Galal L, Schares G, Stragier C, et al. Diversity of Toxoplasma gondii strains shaped by commensal communities of small mammals[J]. Int J Parasitol, 2019, 49(3/4): 267-275.
[97] Abd El-Razik KA, Barakat AMA, Hussein HA, et al. Seroprevalence, isolation, molecular detection and genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii from small ruminants in Egypt[J]. J Parasit Dis, 2018, 42(4): 527-536.
[98] Lachkhem A, Galal L, Lahmar I, et al. First isolation and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii strains from domestic animals in Tunisia[J]. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 9328.
[99] Luká?ová R, Kobédová K, Halajian A, et al. Molecular detection of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in birds from South Africa[J]. Acta Trop, 2018, 178: 93-96.
[100] Yekkour F, Aubert D, Mercier A, et al. First genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in stray cats from Algeria[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2017, 239: 31-36.[PubMed]
[101] Hamidovi? A, Etougbétché JR, Tonouhewa ABN, et al. A hotspot of Toxoplasma gondii Africa 1 lineage in Benin: How new genotypes from West Africa contribute to understand the parasite genetic diversity worldwide[J]. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 2021, 15(2): e0008980.
[102] Leroy J, Houzé S, Dardé ML, et al. Severe toxoplasmosis imported from tropical Africa in immunocompetent patients: A case series[J]. Travel Med Infect Dis, 2020, 35: 101509.
[103] Ra?ka K, Bártová E, Hamidovi? A, et al. First detection of Toxoplasma gondii Africa 4 lineage in a population of carnivores from South Africa[J]. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2024, 14: 1274577.
[104] Eldeek HEM, Ahmad AAR, El-Mokhtar MA, et al. Toxoplasma genotyping in congenital toxoplasmosis in Upper Egypt: evidence of type I strain[J]. Parasitol Res, 2017, 116(9):2393-2406.
[105] Amagbégnon R, Dechavanne C, Dambrun M, et al. Seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women and detection of infection acquired during pregnancy in Cotonou, Benin[J]. Parasite, 2023, 30: 43.
Options
Outlines

/

〈 〉